Genetic Predisposition To Alcoholism In Indians: Nature Or Nurture?

Alcoholism among Native Americans has been a highly stigmatized and controversial topic. The stereotype that Native Americans are genetically predisposed to alcoholism has been discredited, with research showing that the causes of addiction are complex and influenced by a multitude of factors, including trauma, inequality, and environmental stressors. While some studies suggest a potential genetic component to substance dependence in Native Americans, the scientific literature has not identified any genetic anomalies that render Native Americans particularly vulnerable to alcoholism. The high rates of alcohol-related issues in Native American communities are likely due to a combination of genetic, historical, cultural, and socioeconomic factors, rather than genetics alone.

Alcohol dependence in California Indians shows some evidence of heritability

Native Americans have some of the highest rates of alcohol abuse and dependence. However, the idea that they are genetically more susceptible to alcoholism has been debunked as a racist myth that fuelled colonialism. This myth, known as the "firewater myth", claims that American Indians have an inborn, insatiable appetite for alcohol and are hypersensitive to it, vulnerable to addiction, and prone to violence when intoxicated.

Research has not identified any genetic anomalies that render Native Americans more vulnerable to alcoholism. However, studies have found some evidence of a genetic component to substance dependence in Native Americans. For example, a study of the California Indian population showed some evidence of heritability of alcohol dependence, and it was also associated with the degree of Native American heritage.

Twin studies of alcohol dependence have also yielded significant evidence of heritability, and studies of families, twins, and adoptees support a genetic predisposition to alcoholism. However, it is important to note that genetic factors interact with environmental variables to influence the risk of developing an alcohol use disorder.

Childhood trauma, such as being separated from families and tribes and attending abusive boarding schools, is prevalent among Native Americans and can increase the risk of psychopathology, including alcohol use disorders. Additionally, Native Americans experience higher rates of poverty, unemployment, and other stressors, which can contribute to addiction.

While there may be a genetic component to substance dependence in Native Americans, the myth that they are genetically inferior and predisposed to alcoholism obscures the real causes of addiction, such as trauma and inequality.

The myth of genetic inferiority and its role in colonisation

The myth of genetic inferiority has been used to justify and explain the colonisation of various peoples throughout history. One of the most prominent examples of this is the belief that Native Americans are genetically predisposed to alcoholism. This myth, known as the "firewater myth", claims that American Indians have an inherent, insatiable appetite for alcohol and are therefore more vulnerable to addiction. However, this belief has been thoroughly discredited, with scientific literature refuting the idea that Native Americans are genetically inferior or more susceptible to alcoholism.

The firewater myth emerged during the colonial era when Europeans introduced alcohol to Native American tribes. The stereotype that Native Americans were inherently violent and prone to addiction was used to justify colonial expansion and the decimation of Native tribes. This myth has had devastating consequences, contributing to the trauma and inequality experienced by Native Americans today. It is important to recognise that addiction is often described as an equal-opportunity disease, and that the causes of addiction are complex, involving a combination of genetic, environmental, and psychological factors.

While some studies have suggested a potential genetic component to substance dependence in Native Americans, the results are inconclusive and inconsistent. For example, a study of the California Indian population found some evidence of heritability, while another study of the Plains Indian population found little evidence of heritability. It is worth noting that the number of genetic studies conducted on Native Americans is limited due to the mistrust of scientists by many Native American tribes. Additionally, the high prevalence of alcohol dependence in Native American populations may also make it more difficult to detect genetic influences.

Furthermore, it is crucial to consider the role of environmental and cultural factors in the development of alcohol use disorders. Native Americans have experienced historical trauma, cultural genocide, and ongoing inequality, which have contributed to intergenerational trauma and increased rates of mental illness, including addiction. The impact of childhood adversity, such as family separation and abuse, cannot be understated, as it increases the risk of addiction and other mental health issues. The stress of living in poverty, unemployment, and experiencing discrimination can also contribute to the development of addiction.

In conclusion, the myth of genetic inferiority, specifically the belief that Native Americans are genetically predisposed to alcoholism, has played a significant role in justifying colonisation and obscuring the true causes of addiction. While there may be a genetic component to substance dependence in some Native American populations, it is not indicative of genetic inferiority. Instead, the higher rates of alcoholism among Native Americans are likely due to a complex interplay of genetic, environmental, and cultural factors, as well as the trauma and inequality resulting from colonisation. Addressing these underlying issues is crucial to combating the myth of genetic inferiority and promoting healing and recovery.

The role of trauma and inequality in alcoholism

It is a common misconception that Native Americans are genetically predisposed to alcoholism. This is a racist myth that originated during the colonial era. While it is true that alcoholism rates among Native Americans are twice as high as those of whites, and alcohol-related death rates are tripled, the cause is not genetic. Instead, the elevated rates of alcoholism among Native Americans can be attributed to the starring roles that trauma and inequality play in creating addiction.

The Role of Trauma

Traumatic experiences in childhood have been linked to a multitude of negative consequences in both early life and adulthood, including an increased risk for depression, anxiety, and an earlier age of first alcohol use. Research has found that childhood trauma is highly prevalent in treatment-seeking alcoholics and may play a significant role in the development and severity of alcohol dependence. Emotional abuse has been identified as the primary predictor of alcohol dependence severity, while physical abuse also has a direct effect on severity. Sexual abuse has been associated with increased severity of symptoms in depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

The Role of Inequality

Income inequality and poverty are also associated with alcohol use and problems. Research has found that higher levels of alcohol problems are found in high-inequality states, particularly among Blacks and Hispanics compared to Whites. This may be due to the "double jeopardy" hypothesis, where poorer people and racial minorities suffer a double blow in unequal areas. In the United States, there are stark differences in income and poverty status between racial groups, with significantly higher poverty rates among Blacks and Hispanics compared to Whites.

The Intersection of Trauma and Inequality

The intersection of trauma and inequality is particularly evident in the history of Native Americans, who have experienced cultural genocide, family separation, and disproportionately high rates of poverty and unemployment. These intergenerational traumas, passed down from generation to generation, have contributed to the high rates of alcoholism seen in this community.

Alcoholism among Native Americans: the facts and figures

Native Americans have some of the highest rates of alcohol abuse and dependence in the world. Among contemporary Native Americans and Alaska Natives, 11.7% of all deaths are related to alcohol, compared to about 5.9% of global deaths. Studies have shown that some AI/AN tribes have higher rates of alcohol use disorder (AUD). For example, the prevalence of lifetime AUD in men and women was 83% and 51% in a Southwestern American Indian tribe, 70% and 50% in a Southwest California Indian tribe, 70% and 40% in a Plains American Indian tribe, and 47% and 13% in a Southeastern American Indian tribe. In contrast, the prevalence of lifetime AUD in the general US population is 17% and 8% for men and women, respectively.

The high rates of alcohol abuse and dependence among Native Americans have been attributed to various factors, including genetic predisposition, environmental stressors, and historical trauma. While some researchers have suggested that there may be a genetic component to substance dependence in Native Americans, others have refuted this claim, arguing that racist ideologies and stereotypes have fuelled the "firewater myth". This myth, which has been disproven by scientific literature, claims that Native Americans are genetically inferior and inherently vulnerable to alcoholism.

Research has shown that substance dependence has a heritable component, with approximately 50% of the risk resulting from genetic influences in the general population. However, fewer studies have investigated the role of genetics in substance dependence among Native Americans. The limited studies that have been conducted have produced results similar to those found in European-ancestry individuals, indicating that Native Americans do not have an increased genetic risk for alcoholism. Instead, it is suggested that the phenomenon may be due to the interplay of multiple genes and environmental factors.

Environmental stressors and historical trauma have also played a significant role in the high rates of alcohol abuse among Native Americans. High rates of childhood trauma, including family separation and cultural genocide in abusive boarding schools, have been linked to an increased risk of psychopathology, including alcohol use disorder. Additionally, socioeconomic status, unemployment, and low levels of education are known to increase the risk of addiction, and these factors have disproportionately affected Native American communities.

In conclusion, while there may be a genetic component to substance dependence in Native Americans, the high rates of alcohol abuse and dependence among this population cannot be attributed solely to genetics. Environmental stressors and historical trauma, perpetuated by systemic racism and inequality, have also played a significant role in the overrepresentation of alcohol-related harm in Native American communities.

The impact of boarding schools on Native American children

While there is some evidence to suggest a genetic predisposition to substance dependence in Native Americans, the idea that Native Americans are genetically more susceptible to alcoholism is a myth. This myth stems from racist colonial ideologies and has been refuted by modern research. Instead, the high rates of alcoholism in Native American communities are influenced by a range of factors, including historical trauma, inequality, and socioeconomic status.

For centuries, federal, state, and church assimilation policies and practices led to the forcible removal of Native American, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian children from their homes and communities. These children were placed in at least 408 known federal Indian boarding schools across the country, where they endured brutal treatment and were prohibited from practising their cultures and traditions. The impact of these schools on Native American children was profound and intergenerational.

Indian boarding schools, often disguised as educational institutions, furthered the government's goals of assimilating Native American children into non-Native culture and erasing their Indigenous identities. Children were separated from their families and cultural ways for long periods, sometimes four or more years. They were forced to cut their hair, give up their traditional clothing and names, and take English ones. They were punished for speaking their native languages and practising their cultural and religious traditions. The schools often operated like military organisations, with strict rules and harsh discipline, including solitary confinement, flogging, withholding food, whipping, and slapping. Older children were sometimes made to punish younger ones.

The impact of these schools extended beyond the individual children to the broader Native American communities. The boarding schools disrupted family structures and undermined traditional Native American culture, contributing to the erosion of Indigenous languages and cultures that continues today. The trauma experienced by the children who attended these schools has been passed down through generations, contributing to the high rates of addiction and other social issues in Native American communities.

In recent years, there have been efforts to address the intergenerational trauma caused by Indian boarding school policies. The National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition provides resources for individuals seeking support regarding their experiences in Indian boarding schools or assisting relatives in healing efforts. In May 2022, the Office of the Assistant Secretary–Indian Affairs released a report addressing the government's role in the forcible removal of Indian children and recommending next steps for assisting Tribal Nations in their healing processes. Additionally, the Truth and Healing Commission on Indian Boarding School Policies Act, if passed, would authorize a Congressional Commission to formally investigate and record the history and ongoing impact of Indian boarding schools.

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