Native Americans: The Genetic Predisposition To Alcoholism

Alcohol addiction is a complex issue that has long affected Native American communities. While historical, biological, socioeconomic, and cultural factors have been implicated, the exact reasons for the high prevalence of alcohol use disorders in Native Americans remain unclear. This introduction will explore the potential biological connection between Native Americans and alcoholism, examining genetic predispositions, environmental influences, and the impact of historical trauma.

Historical factors: European settlers introduced alcohol to Native Americans

Alcohol addiction is a complex issue that affects individuals and communities worldwide, and Native Americans have long struggled with alcoholism and its devastating consequences. To understand the connection between Native Americans and alcohol addiction, it is necessary to delve into the historical, biological, socioeconomic, and cultural factors that contribute to it.

Historically, European settlers introduced alcohol to Native Americans as a commodity for trade and control. Alcohol was unknown to Native Americans before the arrival of Europeans, and liquor became a highly profitable trade item. Whites deliberately pressed alcohol upon the natives, and it was also used as a tool of "diplomacy" in official dealings between authorities and natives. The use of alcohol as a trade item gradually undermined traditional Native American culture, and by the late 18th century, alcoholism was recognized as a serious issue among Native Americans.

The response of Native Americans to alcohol was initially influenced by the behaviour of White frontiersmen, who drank excessively and engaged in otherwise unacceptable behaviour while drunk. This set a precedent for Native Americans, who began to associate alcohol with intoxication for fun or stress alleviation. Additionally, the interpretation of Native drunkenness as a sign of racial inferiority led to the emergence of "firewater myths," which misrepresented the nature and sources of Native American alcohol problems. These myths portrayed Native Americans as genetically inferior and inherently vulnerable to alcoholism, providing ideological support for the decimation and colonization of Native tribes.

The historical trauma experienced by Native Americans, including colonization, forced assimilation, and loss of cultural practices, has also been identified as a significant factor contributing to alcohol misuse. This trauma has resulted in low self-esteem, loss of cultural identity, lack of positive role models, history of abuse and neglect, and feelings of hopelessness. Substance misuse has been used as a pathological coping strategy to deal with these issues, and there is a significant correlation between alcohol misuse, depression, and suicide among Native Americans.

Furthermore, there is evidence of a genetic component to substance dependence in Native Americans, with studies finding a heritable component to the risk of substance dependence. While no specific gene has been identified as responsible for the rates of alcoholism among Native Americans, it is suggested that multiple genes and environmental factors interplay. The expression of these genes can be influenced by external factors, such as trauma and stress, which Native Americans have experienced in significant proportions.

Genetic predisposition: Certain gene variants may increase the risk of alcoholism

The stereotype of Native Americans being unable to handle alcohol, known as the "firewater myth", is based on the racist ideology that fuelled colonialism. It has been argued that this myth contributed to the belief that Native Americans were genetically inferior and inherently vulnerable to alcoholism. However, scientific literature has refuted these claims, documenting the variability of alcohol problems across and within Native tribes and the different responses that individuals have to alcohol.

Research has not identified any genetic anomalies that make Native Americans more vulnerable to alcoholism. While certain gene variants may increase the risk of alcoholism, the expression of these genes can be influenced by external factors. For example, the presence of specific gene variants can affect the enzymes responsible for breaking down alcohol, such as variations in the genes encoding alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) enzymes, which can impact the rate at which alcohol is metabolized.

The emerging field of epigenetics suggests that environmental factors, such as trauma and stress, can influence gene expression. Native Americans have experienced significant historical trauma and ongoing socioeconomic challenges, which may have made them more susceptible to epigenetic changes that contribute to alcohol addiction. Studies have found a link between early trauma and the risk of addiction, with those experiencing four or more adverse childhood experiences having a seven times greater risk of alcoholism. Native Americans were often separated from their parents and tribes at a young age, and their families were more likely to be broken up by the state, contributing to intergenerational trauma.

Additionally, it is important to consider the historical context of alcohol use among Native Americans. European settlers introduced alcohol as a commodity, using it for trade and control, which led to widespread abuse and addiction among Native Americans, who were unaccustomed to its effects. Heavy alcohol consumption and drunkenness were common among the colonists, providing an early model of excessive drinking.

While the impact of biological factors on alcohol addiction in Native Americans extends beyond genetic predisposition, it is crucial to recognize the complex interplay between genetics and environmental influences. Substance dependence has been found to have a substantial heritable component, with evidence of a genetic component in the etiology of substance dependence in Native Americans. However, studies have not revealed any risk variants specific to Native American populations, although most Native Americans lack protective variants seen in other populations.

Environmental factors: Trauma and stress can influence gene expression

While research has not identified any genetic anomalies that make Native Americans particularly vulnerable to alcoholism, psychosocial stressors play a significant role in alcohol use among Native adolescents. Native American youth are socialized into the culture of alcohol at an early age, and this pattern of testing alcohol limits persists until early adulthood. Historical trauma, such as disenfranchised grief and internalized oppression, also plays a role in substance misuse as a pathological coping strategy.

Trauma and stress can influence gene expression through epigenetic changes. Epigenetics is the study of how the environment and behavior impact genes. While the genetic code itself remains unchanged, the expression or readability of genes can be modified, thereby altering how the gene functions. For example, chronic exposure to the stress hormone corticosterone in mice altered the expression of three HPA axis genes, including higher levels of Fkbp5 in the hippocampus, hypothalamus, and blood. Genetic variations in Fkbp5 have been associated with post-traumatic stress disorder and mood disorders. Similarly, early- and mid-life stress in humans have been shown to modify the methylation of genes implicated in various diseases, including cardiovascular disease and cognitive impairment.

Intergenerational trauma is the theory that trauma can be inherited and passed down through generations via epigenetic changes. For example, the male offspring of Civil War soldiers who were prisoners of war were more likely to die early after age 45, indicating that paternal stress can impact future generations. Additionally, the offspring of mice conditioned to fear a specific smell also exhibited heightened sensitivity to that scent, suggesting that fear in one generation can lead to sensitivity in the next. While the science of epigenetics is still in its infancy, it offers potential insights into how trauma and stress can influence gene expression and contribute to pathological behaviors.

It is important to note that the connection between stress, trauma, and epigenetic changes is complex and speculative. The experience of stress is subjective, and the impact of trauma can vary between individuals and generations. Additionally, the transmission of trauma may be influenced by cultural, psychological, and socioeconomic factors, as well as genetic components. Further research is needed to fully understand the role of epigenetics in intergenerational trauma and its potential implications for pathological behaviors such as substance misuse.

Social factors: Native Americans are pressured to drink as a social activity

While there is no conclusive evidence of a biological connection that renders Native Americans particularly vulnerable to alcoholism, several social factors contribute to the high rates of alcohol misuse in these communities. One significant factor is the social pressure to drink, especially among men. Within Lakota society, for example, there is a prevalent culture of drinking as a social activity, with constant peer pressure to join others in drinking. This social pressure also extends to Native American youth, who are socialized into the culture of alcohol at an early age, with many engaging in experimental drinking patterns that can lead to binge drinking later in life.

The social dynamics within Native American communities can also influence drinking behaviours. In Lakota society, for instance, drunken behaviour is often excused, and individuals with alcohol use disorder are not ostracized but are instead provided with shelter and food by their families. This lack of social control and pressure to stay sober can contribute to the normalization of alcohol misuse. Additionally, Native American youth may face psychosocial stressors, such as physical or sexual abuse, family dysfunction, and educational challenges, which can increase their vulnerability to substance misuse.

Cultural and historical factors also play a role in the social pressures to drink within Native American communities. The introduction of alcohol by European settlers, used as a tool for trade and control, disrupted traditional social structures and contributed to widespread abuse and addiction among Native Americans. Additionally, the loss of cultural practices, languages, and traditions due to colonization and forced assimilation has had a profound impact on the social fabric of these communities, influencing their relationship with alcohol.

Socioeconomic conditions, including poverty, unemployment, and mobility, have also been linked to alcohol misuse among Native Americans. Urban Native Americans have higher rates of alcohol use than those living in rural areas or reservations. Furthermore, the disintegration of social interactions and family structures due to modernization and acculturative stress has contributed to increased alcohol misuse within these communities. The social pressures and environmental factors influencing Native American communities are complex and interconnected, requiring comprehensive and culturally sensitive approaches to address the high rates of alcohol misuse.

Cultural factors: Alcohol was initially used for trade and control

Alcohol addiction is a complex issue that affects individuals and communities worldwide, with Native Americans in particular struggling with alcoholism and its consequences. To understand this connection, it's crucial to explore the cultural factors, including the historical context of alcohol use among Native Americans.

European settlers introduced alcohol as a commodity, using it for trade and control, which led to widespread abuse and addiction among Native Americans, who were unfamiliar with its effects. This introduction of alcohol by European settlers gradually undermined traditional Native American culture, and by the late 18th century, alcoholism was recognised as a severe issue in many Native American communities.

The historical context of alcohol use among Native Americans involves colonisation, forced assimilation, and the loss of cultural practices, languages, and traditions. This loss of cultural identity has contributed to the vulnerability of these communities, making them more susceptible to substance abuse. Native Americans have also faced socioeconomic challenges, including high unemployment rates, low educational attainment, and inadequate support systems, which have placed stress on families and social structures.

Additionally, Native American youth are socialised into the culture of alcohol at an early age, and this pattern of testing alcohol limits can persist until early adulthood. Psychosocial stressors, such as physical or sexual abuse, family dynamics, and peer pressure, also play a significant role in alcohol use among Native American adolescents.

Furthermore, Native Americans have experienced significant historical trauma, which has been associated with substance use disorders. Historical trauma refers to the collective distress experienced by a group due to past events such as colonisation, oppression, and loss of cultural identity. This trauma can lead to pathological coping strategies, including substance misuse, to deal with low self-esteem, loss of positive role models, history of abuse, and feelings of hopelessness.

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