Theo Nash
Alcohol has been consumed for thousands of years, with fermented beverages found in early Egyptian civilisations, and evidence of alcoholic drinks in China around 7000 BC. Alcohol has played a significant role in various societies throughout history, with alcoholic beverages being important in the Thirteen Colonies and wine considered an integral part of daily meals in ancient Greece. The perception of alcohol has changed over time, with drunkenness being an accepted part of life in the 18th century, but the 19th century bringing a shift in attitudes due to increasing industrialisation and the need for a reliable workforce. This led to the temperance movement, which promoted moderate alcohol use and eventually pushed for total prohibition in the US in 1920. While the negative effects of alcohol have been recognised for centuries, with Greek literature containing warnings against excessive drinking, the scientific understanding of alcoholism has evolved, with the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism being founded in 1970 to bring a more scientific orientation to the issue.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Time period | 18th century |
| Reason for drinking alcohol | Pleasure, nutrition, medicine, ritual, remuneration, funerary purposes |
| Alcohol use in history | Drunkenness was accepted in the 18th century; the 19th century brought a change in attitudes due to increasing industrialization and the need for a punctual workforce |
| Alcohol in ancient civilizations | Alcoholic beverages existed in early Egyptian civilization and China around 7000 BC; in India, an alcoholic beverage called sura was distilled from rice between 3000 and 2000 BC; Babylonians worshiped a wine goddess as early as 2700 BC; one of the first alcoholic beverages to gain popularity in Greece was mead |
| Post-Prohibition and post-World War II era | The proportion of abstainers declined, especially among women; by the early 1970s, approximately 77% of adult men and 60% of adult women were drinkers; underage drinking decreased, but heavy drinking on college campuses remained an issue |
| Citizen movements | The temperance movement dominated research and education regarding alcohol in the past; the trend now is towards deriving objective information from academic and scientific sources |
| International organizations | The International Bureau Against Alcoholism, founded in 1907, became the International Council on Alcohol and Alcoholism in 1964, reflecting a shift from total opposition to drinking to an objective consideration of alcohol |
| Perception of alcohol advertising | Varies depending on the district's socio-economic status and gender; participants from lower socio-economic status areas were more critical of alcohol advertising and had a broader perception of the negative social and economic consequences of alcohol |
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What You'll Learn
Industrialization and the need for a punctual workforce
The perception of alcohol started to change in the 19th century due to increasing industrialization and the need for a punctual workforce. This shift in attitudes towards drunkenness occurred as employers prioritized self-discipline and task orientation over self-expression and relaxed conviviality. The industrial era demanded a reliable and punctual workforce, and drunkenness was viewed as a hindrance to efficiency and economic growth.
During this period, the world transitioned from a predominantly agrarian society to one dominated by industrialization and urbanization. This transformation brought about significant social and economic changes, including the emergence of factories and a clock-bound work culture. The demands of factory work, with its emphasis on timely production and efficiency, clashed with the culture of drunkenness that had been accepted in the previous century.
In the context of industrialization, drunkenness was perceived as a threat to productivity and progress. Employers sought a disciplined workforce that could adhere to the rigorous demands of industrial labor. The need for punctuality and consistency in the workplace meant that drunkenness, with its associated impairments, was increasingly frowned upon. This shift in perspective was not merely a matter of changing social norms but also had economic implications, as drunkenness was blamed for various societal issues.
The negative perception of alcohol was further exacerbated by the breakdown of social norms that discouraged alcohol abuse. The rapid urbanization and social changes caused by industrialization led to a rise in heavy drinking, particularly among factory workers. Drinking excessively was not as problematic for farmers, whose work was tied to the natural rhythms of agriculture, but it became a significant issue for factory workers bound by strict work schedules.
The industrialization process brought about by economic, social, and political changes has been linked to heightened stress and dysfunction within societies. This transition has been associated with various negative social and mental health problems, including substance abuse. The perception of alcohol shifted as people blamed it for issues arising from industrialization, such as urban crime, poverty, and high infant mortality. Any alcohol consumption, not just drunkenness, was increasingly viewed negatively, and temperance movements advocating for moderate drinking or even prohibition gained traction.
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Alcohol advertising
Alcohol has been consumed for thousands of years, with evidence of alcoholic drinks in ancient civilisations in Egypt, China, India, Greece, and pre-Columbian America. Alcohol was used for a variety of purposes, including pleasure, nutrition, medicine, rituals, remuneration, and funerary practices.
In the 18th century, drunkenness was an accepted part of life, with cheap spirits widely available in Britain. However, the 19th century brought a shift in attitudes as industrialisation led to a need for a reliable and punctual workforce. This marked the beginning of the temperance movement, which initially promoted moderate alcohol use but later pushed for total prohibition.
In the post-Prohibition and post-World War II era, American drinking practices and attitudes underwent further changes. The proportion of abstainers declined, particularly among women, and by the early 1970s, a significant majority of adults were drinkers. While underage drinking decreased, heavy drinking and binge drinking on college campuses remained prevalent.
The perception of alcohol and alcoholism has evolved over time, influenced by various factors such as cultural norms, scientific understanding, and public health concerns. The negative impact of alcohol misuse on mental and physical health, social relationships, and economic stability has been increasingly recognised.
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Alcoholism as a disease
Alcoholism, or alcohol addiction, has been recognised for many years by professional medical organisations as a primary, chronic, progressive, and sometimes fatal disease. The American Medical Association (AMA) classified alcoholism as a disease in 1956, urging that alcoholics be admitted to general hospitals for care. This marked a turning point in the perception of alcoholism, with the medical profession accepting the 'disease concept of alcoholism'.
The progression of the disease is often subtle and slow-acting, making it difficult for even the alcoholic to notice the point at which they lost control. Alcoholism can develop in people of all ages and has no single known cause. Instead, heredity, culture, economics, and the environment all contribute to its development, with each alcoholic having their own personal drinking history.
Alcoholism is characterised by a mental obsession causing a physical compulsion to drink. Alcohol and other substances affect the brain's dopamine neurotransmitters, which are involved in the ability to feel pleasure from ordinary pursuits. When this reward system is disrupted by substance misuse, it can result in reduced enjoyment from other areas of life when not drinking or using drugs. This can lead to a pathological reward system, where the person becomes dependent on the substance to feel good.
The chronic misuse of alcohol can cause a wide range of mental health problems, including severe cognitive issues and psychiatric disorders. Alcohol misuse is also associated with an increased risk of criminal behaviour and social problems, as well as loss of employment and financial difficulties.
Treatment for alcoholism can be challenging due to its complex nature and the fact that it often progresses slowly over a person's lifetime. Formal treatment may not always be effective, and relapse is common. However, various treatment options are available, including cognitive-behavioural techniques, inpatient or outpatient rehab, and support from organisations such as Alcoholics Anonymous.
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Temperance movement
The Temperance Movement was a social movement that promoted moderation and, more often, complete abstinence from alcohol. It began in the early 1800s, with the earliest temperance organisations founded in Saratoga, New York, in 1808, and in Massachusetts in 1813. The Massachusetts Society for the Suppression of Intemperance (MSSI), formed in 1813, is one such example. The movement spread rapidly under the influence of the churches; by 1833, there were 6,000 local societies in several US states.
The Temperance Movement was particularly prominent in the United States, where it began at a national level in the 1820s, driven by evangelical reformers and the middle classes. It also gained traction in other English-speaking, Scandinavian, and majority-Protestant countries. The movement was nonsectarian in principle, but the majority of its participants were churchgoers. The emphasis was on moral, economic, and medical arguments against overindulgence in alcohol.
The movement was particularly appealing to women, who were active from its early days. By 1831, there were 24 women's organisations dedicated to temperance. Women crusaders, especially middle-class Protestants, framed temperance as a religious and moral duty that complemented other feminine responsibilities. They argued that if total abstinence was achieved, the family, its home, its health, and even its salvation would be secure.
The Temperance Movement led to national prohibitions on alcohol in several countries, including Canada (1918-1920), Norway (spirits only, 1919-1926), Finland (1919-1932), and the United States (1920-1933). It also influenced provincial prohibition in India, which has been in place since 1948.
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Alcohol in ancient societies
Alcohol has played a significant role in the lives of people since ancient times. Its consumption and significance vary across different ancient societies. Here is a glimpse into the role of alcohol in some ancient civilisations:
Ancient China
The earliest evidence of alcohol consumption dates back to residues found in pottery jars from northern China, which are believed to be from 7000 to 6600 BC. In ancient China, alcohol was consumed during memorial ceremonies, sacrifices to gods and ancestors, pledging before battles, celebrations, oath-taking, and festivals. Grain and rice wine were consumed daily and were a significant source of income for the treasury. Alcohol was also considered a source of inspiration and an antidote for fatigue.
Ancient Mesopotamia (Sumer)
In ancient Mesopotamia, particularly in Sumer, beer was a staple drink. It played a crucial role in religious, economic, and political spheres. Beer was offered to the gods to ensure prosperity and was used as payment for labourers on construction projects. Additionally, it served to foster social cohesion and reinforce social hierarchies during feasts and celebrations. The Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh describes how the character Enkidu is given beer to transform him into a civilised human.
Ancient Egypt
Beer and bread were fundamental components of the daily diet in ancient Egypt. Beer was regarded as the drink of the gods and was believed to have nutritional and medicinal benefits. It was used to treat various ailments, as evidenced by ancient medical texts.
Ancient Greece
Wine-making in ancient Greece dates back to around 2000 BC, and wine became integral to various aspects of Greek life. It was consumed during religious rituals, hospitality, and daily meals. Wine was so highly valued that it was considered a defining characteristic of Hellenic culture. Dionysus, the Greek god of wine, fertility, and ritual madness, represented the medium between the living and the dead. Greeks also gathered for symposiums, where men conversed, shared stories, and often became intoxicated.
Other Ancient Societies
Alcoholic beverages were also prevalent in other ancient societies, such as the Mayan and Inca empires, where they played a significant role. In pre-Columbian Brazil, the Native American populations produced Cauim, a traditional alcoholic beverage still made today in remote areas of Panama and South America. Additionally, thin, gruel-like alcoholic drinks were common across the African continent, made from the fermentation of sorghum, millet, bananas, maize, or cassava.
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Frequently asked questions
The perception of alcohol started to change in the 19th century due to increasing industrialization and the need for a punctual workforce. Drunkenness was defined as a threat to industrial efficiency and growth.
Drunkenness was an accepted part of life in the 18th century. Alcoholic beverages were used for pleasure, nutrition, medicine, ritual, remuneration, and funerary purposes.
The temperance movement, which began in the 19th century, promoted the moderate use of alcohol, which eventually became a push for total prohibition.
The founding of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism in 1970 brought a scientific orientation to the consideration of alcohol problems. The remnants of the old temperance movement had vanished by the 1970s, and the discourse shifted towards objective scholarship and scientific objectivity. The perception of alcohol also varied by socio-economic characteristics and gender.
