Lena Savoie
Alcohols have been used for centuries as disinfectants and antiseptics, with ethanol being a common example. They are effective against a wide variety of bacteria and viruses, particularly at concentrations of 60-80%. The antimicrobial effects of alcohols are primarily due to their ability to denature proteins and disrupt the lipid membranes of microorganisms, leading to cellular dysfunction and death. Alcohols also possess desirable features such as excellent bactericidal activity, virucidal efficacy, and fungicidal efficacy. In healthcare, ethyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol are widely used as antimicrobial agents, with the latter being a popular sanitizing agent in pharmaceutical companies to prevent cross-contamination. Alcohols have also found applications in the brewing industry to control beer spoilage bacteria, such as Lactobacillus brevis and Pectinatus cerevisiiphilus, which can cause turbidity, acidity, and the production of unpleasant odors. Understanding the mechanisms of action of alcohols on microorganisms is crucial for their effective utilization in various industries and healthcare settings.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Major targets | Viral envelope, capsid, and genome |
| Cell membranes, conformations of enzymes and macromolecules, activity coefficients of metabolites, permitivity, ionization potentials, pK values of functional groups, and pH value | |
| Action | Denaturation of proteins and disruption of lipid membranes |
| Inactivation of most vegetative organisms | |
| Increased sensitivity of bacteria to ionizing radiation and lipophilic acids | |
| Bactericidal, tuberculocidal, fungicidal, and virucidal | |
| Antiseptic and disinfectant |
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What You'll Learn
Alcohols as antimicrobial agents
In healthcare and pharmaceutical settings, the term "alcohol" typically refers to two water-soluble chemical compounds: ethyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol. These compounds have been used as antimicrobial agents for hard-surface (non-skin) disinfection since at least the late 1800s. Alcohols are desirable for this purpose because they are inexpensive, possess bactericidal and bacteriostatic properties, demonstrate some virucidal efficacy (especially against enveloped viruses), and exhibit fungicidal activity.
The antimicrobial activity of alcohols is due to their ability to denature proteins. The ideal concentration range for alcohol solutions is between 60-90%, with the effectiveness dropping sharply below 50%. At concentrations above 15%, ethanol, for example, causes the immediate inactivation of most vegetative organisms, though spores are considerably more resistant. Alcohols have been shown to be effective against a wide variety of bacteria, including gram-positive and gram-negative strains, and fungi. They are also effective against viruses, with ethyl alcohol demonstrating virucidal activity against herpes, influenza, adenovirus, enterovirus, rhinovirus, rotaviruses, and more.
While alcohols have been shown to be effective antimicrobial agents, they are not without their limitations. For example, the presence of organic soil can reduce their effectiveness as sanitizing agents, and they are not recommended for hand hygiene when hands are visibly dirty. Additionally, alcohols are volatile and flammable, requiring caution in their use. Furthermore, while alcohols have been used for many years as preservatives, their long-term use may lead to the development of microbial resistance.
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Alcohols as disinfectants
Alcohols have been used as disinfectants for many years. In healthcare settings, "alcohol" typically refers to two water-soluble chemical compounds: ethyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol. These alcohols are rapidly bactericidal against vegetative forms of bacteria; they are also tuberculocidal, fungicidal, and virucidal. However, they do not destroy bacterial spores. The effectiveness of alcohols as bactericides increases with concentration, with the optimum bactericidal concentration being 60–90% solutions in water. At lower concentrations, the cidal activity of alcohols drops sharply.
The antimicrobial action of alcohol is believed to be caused by the denaturation of proteins. This is supported by the observation that absolute ethyl alcohol is less bactericidal than mixtures of alcohol and water, as proteins are denatured more quickly in the presence of water. The presence of water is a crucial factor in inhibiting the growth of pathogenic microorganisms with isopropyl alcohol. Water acts as a catalyst and plays a key role in denaturing the proteins of vegetative cell membranes. 70% isopropyl alcohol solutions penetrate the cell wall more completely, permeating the entire cell and coagulating all proteins, leading to the death of the microorganism.
Alcohols are often used to disinfect small surfaces, such as rubber stoppers of medication vials, thermometers, and occasionally external surfaces of equipment, such as stethoscopes and ventilators. Alcohols have also been used to disinfect fiberoptic endoscopes, hospital pagers, scissors, and CPR manikins. However, it is important to note that alcohols are flammable and must be stored in a cool, well-ventilated area. They also have some shortcomings, such as damaging certain plastics and rubber over time and are therefore not recommended for sterilizing medical and surgical materials.
In summary, alcohols are effective disinfectants against a range of microorganisms, but their use is primarily limited to small surfaces or noncritical patient care devices due to their flammability and potential damage to certain materials.
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Alcohols as antiseptics
Alcohols have been used as an antiseptic as early as 1363, with supporting evidence becoming available in the late 1800s. In medieval Europe, for example, the consumption of alcoholic drinks was a way of avoiding water-borne diseases such as cholera.
Today, alcohols are used as antiseptics in various forms, including as hand sanitizers, skin disinfectants before needle sticks and surgery, mouthwashes, and even as an antidote to methanol or ethylene glycol toxicity. Ethanol and isopropyl alcohol are the most commonly used types of alcohol for antiseptic purposes.
Ethanol is a common ingredient in mouthwashes, acting as a carrier agent for essential active ingredients such as menthol, eucalyptol, and thymol, which help penetrate plaque. It is also used in liquid preparations of pain medications, cough and cold medicines, and mouthwashes, often to dissolve water-insoluble medications.
Isopropyl alcohol, on the other hand, is the principal ingredient in rubbing alcohol, which is applied topically to disinfect the skin before surgery. It is also effective at preventing bacterial infections from dog or cat bites when applied immediately.
Both ethanol and isopropyl alcohol have demonstrated the ability to inactivate viruses such as hepatitis B, herpes, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), rotavirus, echovirus, and astrovirus. They are also effective against a range of microorganisms, although they do not inactivate spores. Concentrations of 60% to 90% are most effective, with 70% ethanol or 40%-60% isopropyl alcohol applied for at least one minute being the best option.
The antimicrobial action of alcohol is believed to be related to the denaturation of proteins and their solubility in lipids, disrupting cell membranes and viral envelopes, and lysing cells. Alcohols also increase the sensitivity of bacteria to inactivation by ionizing radiation and lipophilic acids.
However, it is important to note that the effectiveness of alcohol as a sanitizing agent can be reduced by the presence of organic soil, and that alcohols do not contain typical ingredients found in one-step cleaner disinfectants. Additionally, the volatility and flammability of alcohols can be an issue when used as hard-surface disinfectants.
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Alcohols in healthcare
Alcohols have been used in healthcare settings for many years, primarily as disinfectants and antiseptics. The two most common types of alcohol used in healthcare settings are ethyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol, which are water-soluble chemical compounds with potent germicidal characteristics.
Disinfectants
Alcohol is often used to disinfect surfaces and equipment in healthcare settings. When used in concentrations of 60% to 90% in water, these alcohols are rapidly bactericidal, tuberculocidal, fungicidal, and virucidal. They are effective against a wide range of bacteria, including E. coli, Salmonella typhosa, and Staphylococcus aureus. Isopropyl alcohol is particularly effective against E. coli and S. aureus, while ethyl alcohol is a potent virucide, inactivating lipophilic viruses such as herpes and influenza.
Alcohol is also used to disinfect the skin before needle sticks and surgery, reducing the risk of infection. Alcohol prep pads or towelettes containing isopropyl or ethyl alcohol and water are commonly used for this purpose. Sterile alcohol solutions are used for disinfection in controlled areas, such as compounding pharmacies.
Antiseptics
Alcohols are also used as antiseptics, applied to the skin before surgery or to disinfect the hands of healthcare providers. They are common ingredients in hand sanitizers and are listed on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Alcohols are also added to mouthwash as a carrier agent for active ingredients such as menthol and eucalyptol, although they are not intended to destroy bacteria in the mouth.
Preservatives
Alcohol is used as a preservative in over 700 liquid medicinal preparations, including acetaminophen, iron supplements, and cough medicines. It helps to dissolve water-insoluble medications and acts as an antimicrobial preservative.
Other Uses
Absolute ethanol is used as a sclerosant in sclerotherapy, and historically, alcohol was used as a general anesthetic. Ethanol is also used to treat methanol or ethylene glycol toxicity when fomepizole is unavailable.
Limitations and Concerns
While alcohols are effective disinfectants, they do have limitations. They are not effective against bacterial spores, and their cidal activity drops sharply when diluted below 50% concentration. There are also concerns about the potential for microbial resistance to develop with the widespread use of alcohols and other antiseptics.
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![McKesson Isopropyl Rubbing Alcohol 70% [1 Count] USP First Aid Antiseptic, 32 oz](https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/61lYiXl9g9L._AC_UY218_.jpg)
The effects of alcohol on microorganisms
Alcohols have been used for many years as a disinfectant and preservative. They are effective antimicrobial agents, destroying germs such as bacteria and viruses. The most widely used alcohol-based sanitizers contain either ethanol (ethyl alcohol) or isopropanol (isopropyl alcohol). Ethanol is chemically the same as drinking alcohol.
The antimicrobial action of alcohol is through denaturation of proteins. Alcohol molecules break down the proteins present in the structure of germs. When the proteins break down, the cells lose their structure and membrane protection, dehydrate, and die. This is similar to the process of washing hands with soap and water. However, soap is more effective than alcohol.
The effectiveness of alcohol as a disinfectant depends on various factors, including the concentration, type of alcohol, and type of microbe. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends an alcohol concentration of between 60% and 90% for disinfection. At this concentration, ethanol is a potent virucidal agent, inactivating all lipophilic viruses (e.g., herpes, influenza) and many hydrophilic viruses (e.g., adenovirus, rhinovirus). Isopropyl alcohol is slightly more bactericidal than ethyl alcohol for certain bacteria such as E. coli and S. aureus.
Alcohol concentrations above 15% result in the immediate inactivation of most vegetative organisms, while spores are more resistant. Low concentrations of ethanol also increase the sensitivity of bacteria to inactivation by ionizing radiation and lipophilic acids.
In addition to its disinfectant properties, alcohol can have an impact on the human microbiome. The gut microbiome works to metabolize the different components of alcoholic drinks, producing metabolites that are used for signaling between the gut microbiome, liver, and blood. However, some of these metabolites can be toxic, causing a "leaky gut" where the protective mucus layer on the intestinal lining breaks down, allowing toxins to enter the bloodstream. Alcoholic drinks contain ethanol, which is considered a carcinogen as it causes DNA damage and increases reactive oxygen species.
Overall, alcohol has a significant impact on microorganisms, both as a disinfectant and in terms of its effects on the human microbiome. It is important to understand these effects to utilize alcohol effectively and safely.
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Frequently asked questions
The major targets of alcohols in microbiology are the disruption of the cell membrane and the denaturation of proteins. Alcohols target the lipid membranes of microorganisms, increasing membrane fluidity and causing cofactor leakage and loss of membrane potential, ultimately disrupting cellular integrity and function. Alcohols also denature proteins, rendering them inactive and nonfunctional.
Some examples of alcohols used in microbiology include ethanol, butanol, and isobutanol. Ethanol is commonly employed for disinfecting surfaces and cleaning skin prior to surgical interventions.
Alcohols have broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and are effective against a wide variety of bacteria and viruses. They are also effective against fungi and have been used as disinfectants and preservatives for many years.
