Theo Nash
Alcohol consumption in ancient Rome was influenced by Greek and Phoenician cultures, with drinking behaviours similar to those of the Greeks. The symposium, a drinking banquet where participants reclined on couches, was adopted from the Greeks. These banquets were reserved for the Roman elite, who would engage in debates, poetry recitals, and philosophical conversations while consuming large quantities of wine. Wine was a ubiquitous drink in ancient Rome, and its availability was an important aspect of governance. Roman soldiers consumed posca, a cheap wine and vinegar mix flavoured with water and herbs. In addition to wine, the Romans also drank beer, with evidence of beer brewing found at a Roman military encampment on the Danube, dating back to 179 AD.
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What You'll Learn
- Wine was a ubiquitous drink in Ancient Rome, often mixed with water, honey, herbs, or vinegar
- Roman soldiers drank posca, a mix of cheap wine, vinegar, water, and herbs
- Beer, or cerevisia, was also consumed, as evidenced by the discovery of a brewer's tomb in ancient Treveris
- Roman drinking culture was influenced by the Greeks and Phoenicians, who held banquets (symposiums) where the elite would drink wine
- Women drinking alcohol was frowned upon in Ancient Rome, with early Republic laws forbidding it entirely
Wine was a ubiquitous drink in Ancient Rome, often mixed with water, honey, herbs, or vinegar
Wine was a staple drink in Ancient Rome, consumed by all classes of people, from the elite to soldiers, peasants, and slaves. The Roman soldiers consumed a wine-based drink called "posca", a mix of cheap wine, vinegar, water, and herbs. Posca was said to be refreshing and energizing, and it became an essential drink for the legions during campaigns.
The Romans inherited their drinking culture from the Greeks and Phoenicians, including the Symposium, a drinking banquet where participants reclined on couches. These banquets were reserved for the elite, who engaged in debates, poetry recitals, and philosophical conversations while drinking large quantities of wine. Wine was often mixed with water immediately before drinking, as the fermentation process was not controlled, resulting in a high alcohol content.
To enhance the flavour of wine, Romans would mix it with various ingredients such as honey, herbs, or vinegar. One such recipe, called "mulsum", was a mixture of wine and honey. Another recipe, "Conditum Paradoxum", included wine, honey, pepper, laurel, dates, mastic, and saffron, cooked and stored for later consumption. Romans also drank "passum", a strong and sweet raisin wine of Carthaginian origin.
While wine was ubiquitous, other alcoholic beverages were also consumed in Ancient Rome. Beer, for example, was brewed and consumed, as evidenced by the discovery of a beer brewer's tomb in ancient Treveris. Additionally, archaeological evidence suggests that Rome's soldiers in Britain consumed Celtic ale.
The availability and consumption of wine played a significant role in Roman governance. Wine shortages could lead to violence, as seen during the prefecture of Orfitus in the mid-4th century BCE. The Roman emperor Augustus even rebuked the populace by reminding them of the availability of water through the aqueducts he had provided.
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Roman soldiers drank posca, a mix of cheap wine, vinegar, water, and herbs
The drinking culture in Ancient Rome was influenced by Greek and Phoenician cultures. Wine was a ubiquitous drink, consumed by all classes of people, from soldiers and peasants to slaves. However, the quality of wine differed significantly between the social classes.
Roman soldiers consumed a wine-based drink called posca, which was made by mixing cheap wine with vinegar, water, and herbs. Posca was initially a peasant drink, said to be refreshing and energy-enhancing. It became essential for Roman legions, sustaining soldiers on their campaigns and solidifying its place as a staple in the Later Republic.
The preparation of posca is similar to a beverage believed to have been consumed by gladiators, as suggested by the analysis of skeletal remains in Ephesus, Turkey. The drink, made from ash, vinegar, and water, was believed to be part of a special gladiator diet, though recent studies have cast doubt on this notion.
While wine was the most common alcoholic beverage, beer was also consumed in Ancient Rome. Archaeologists have found evidence of beer brewing on a large scale in Roman communities, such as Castra Regina, dating back to 179 AD. Beer was also purchased from local brewers, as evidenced by accounts from the Roman fort of Vindolanda in Britain, dating between AD90 and AD130.
The Romans had a complex relationship with alcohol, with drinking dens, cookhouses, and taverns being common features of society. Drinking banquets, known as symposiums, were reserved for the Roman elite, who would recline on couches while engaging in debates, poetry recitals, and philosophical conversations.
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Beer, or cerevisia, was also consumed, as evidenced by the discovery of a brewer's tomb in ancient Treveris
The ancient Romans had a complex relationship with alcohol. Drinking and morality was a common theme, with traditional Roman ideals characterized by restraint, self-control, and sobriety. Wine was a ubiquitous drink in ancient Rome, and its importance is evident in Roman history. For instance, wine shortages in the mid-4th century BCE caused violence during the prefecture of Orfitus, and Emperor Augustus once rebuked the populace, reminding them that he had provided them with enough aqueducts to not go thirsty.
Wine was usually mixed with water immediately before drinking, as the fermentation was uncontrolled, resulting in a high alcohol grade. It was also sometimes flavoured with honey, pepper, laurel, dates, mastic, and saffron, or even seawater, pitch, and rosin. Wine was consumed by all classes of people, from soldiers to peasants and slaves. Roman soldiers drank a wine-based drink called posca, made from cheap wine, vinegar, water, and herbs.
However, beer, or cerevisia, was also consumed in ancient Rome, as evidenced by the discovery of a brewer's tomb in ancient Treveris (modern-day Trier). Beer was likely introduced to the Romans by the Celts, and it was especially common on the outskirts of the empire. The Romans called it cerevisia, derived from the Celtic word for beer. Beer was also consumed by Roman soldiers on their long journeys, and evidence suggests that Roman soldiers in Britain sustained themselves with Celtic ale. For example, the Vindolanda tablets from Vindolanda in Roman Britain, dated c. 97–103 CE, include a letter from the cavalry decurion Masculus politely requesting beer for his men.
Excavations of a Roman military encampment on the Danube, Castra Regina (modern-day Regensburg), also provide evidence of beer brewing on a significant scale shortly after the community was built in 179 CE by Marcus Aurelius. Beer was not as popular as wine, especially among the elite, who considered it a low-class drink suitable only for barbarians. Nevertheless, beer brewing continued to develop and spread throughout Europe, particularly in Germany.
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Roman drinking culture was influenced by the Greeks and Phoenicians, who held banquets (symposiums) where the elite would drink wine
The drinking culture of ancient Rome was heavily influenced by the Greeks and Phoenicians, who held banquets known as symposiums. At these symposiums, elite men would gather on couches in private houses and banquet rooms to drink wine, engage in debates, recite poetry, and discuss philosophy. This practice was adopted by the Romans, who also viewed wine as a "'civilized' drink" and a central part of their culture.
Wine was introduced to Rome through its trade networks and conquests. Greek cities in Southern Italy, such as the Greek capital of Corinth, played a significant role in influencing Roman drinking culture. The Romans also encountered Greek wines when their soldiers returned from Asia Minor around 80 BCE, further increasing their appreciation for foreign wines. Cato the Elder's "De Agricultura," written in the 2nd century BCE, mentions various wine varieties and provides instructions on viticulture, reflecting the importance of wine in Roman society.
The symposium was a key element of Roman drinking culture, providing a space for elite men to socialize and showcase their sophistication. While symposiums were exclusive to the elite, drinking was not limited to this class. As the empire grew wealthy, drinking became accessible to all classes, including soldiers, peasants, and even slaves.
In addition to wine, the Romans also consumed other alcoholic beverages. Beer, for example, was known to the Romans, and they brewed "cerevisia" on a significant scale. Archaeological evidence suggests that Rome's soldiers in Britain sustained themselves on Celtic ale. Posca, a mixture of cheap wine, vinegar, water, and herbs, was also a common drink, especially for soldiers on campaigns.
While drinking was widespread in Roman society, there were concerns about excessive consumption and its impact on traditional values, particularly regarding women and drinking. Early Republic laws forbade women from drinking, and husbands had the right to punish or even kill their wives for drinking without permission. The festival of Bacchanalia, which involved nocturnal dancing, heavy drinking, and sexualized behavior by women of all classes, induced a moral panic among traditionalist Romans, leading to its suppression.
Overall, the Roman drinking culture, influenced by the Greeks and Phoenicians, played a significant role in shaping social norms, class distinctions, and religious practices in ancient Rome.
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Women drinking alcohol was frowned upon in Ancient Rome, with early Republic laws forbidding it entirely
Wine was central to the everyday life of the Romans, but it was also a problematic drink when consumed by women. Women drinking alcohol was frowned upon in Ancient Rome, with early Republic laws forbidding it entirely. The Roman approach to alcohol was influenced by Greek culture, and Roman drinking behaviours were similar to those of the Greeks. Greek influence saw the use of the word "temetum", which designated grape wine made from wild grapes, cease, and vinum became the word for an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grape juice.
The patriarchal Romans were worried about women drinking alcohol, and this was codified through laws controlling their drinking practices. The laws of the early Republic forbade women from drinking wine at all, and a husband could even kill his wife for drinking without permission. Pliny the Elder tells several stories of women being punished, curtailed, or fined for drinking. However, the rules did relax over time, and the Pater Familias (male head of the household) retained legal control over the women of his house. The taboo around women drinking was as much about protecting the honour of elite families as anything else. For example, Emperor Augustus banned his wayward daughter, Julia, from drinking wine and later exiled her from Rome for her adulterous behaviour.
The taboo may not have been a real archaic custom but a creation of the Roman Republic, which tried to shape women into chaste and obedient wives and daughters. Sources indicate that women did drink wine, but only certain varietals and strengths. For example, passum, a type of sweet raisin wine, may have been acceptable within the strict confines of gendered drinking parameters. By the transition from Republic to Empire in the first century BCE, it was customary for women to drink wine, and female participation in banquets and an increasing cultural appreciation of viticulture signalled a social acceptance of women drinking. Livia, wife of Emperor Augustus, is said to have credited her longevity to a wine varietal from Istria.
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Frequently asked questions
Alcohol was an important part of Roman culture and society. Wine was considered a daily necessity and was consumed by all classes, including slaves, peasants, and aristocrats. It was also used to sustain soldiers on campaigns, with Roman soldiers drinking a wine-based drink called posca.
Wine was the most common alcoholic beverage in Ancient Rome, and it was often mixed with water, honey, herbs, or vinegar. The Romans also drank beer, and there is evidence of beer brewing on a significant scale in Roman communities. Another alcoholic beverage was a drink made from ash, vinegar, and water, which was supposedly consumed by gladiators.
The Romans inherited aspects of viticulture and winemaking techniques from the Greeks and Etruscans. As the Roman Empire expanded, vineyards were planted in new territories to supply local needs and limit the cost of long-distance trading. Wine was also imported from various regions, including Spain, Italy, and Greece.
Yes, there were social norms and legal restrictions around alcohol consumption, especially for women. In early Roman Republic law, women were forbidden from drinking alcohol, and a husband could even kill his wife for drinking without permission. While these constraints relaxed over time, the male head of the household (Pater Familias) always retained legal control over the women in his household. Elite Romans also had exclusive drinking banquets called symposiums, where they would recline on couches, debate, recite poetry, and engage in philosophical conversations.
